Each Maori word has a history, often a very ancient and distinguished one. Words are important. Maori culture has traditionally given great emphasis to the power of words, and Maori people too have for generations been painfully aware of the fate of those who have not mastered the words through which the colonial administrators and their successors exerted their control. As an old man reminded his grandson in a story published in Tü Tangata magazine in 1986:
Silly Pakehas. Knowing nothing ‘bout words. Need the books to remember. And actions stronger than words, they reckon. Tito! Words got the power. So, e moko, kia tupato. Kia tupato. Careful, ay boy. Power of the word. Strong stuff. (Anonymous, "Sticks and Stones" Tu Tangata Oct/Nov 1986, pp. 62-64).
A study of the origin of Mäori words and how their the meanings have changed, or stayed the same, tells us a lot about the history of the ideas which the words carry. Some of these ideas are very ancient, and many of them have developed and changed over time – but often, just the same, they are still clearly linked with their source and original meaning.
Some of the key words in Mäori have originated in New Zealand, and over the last two centuries a great many terms have been added from or through Indo-European sources, particularly, but not only, English. The more "traditional" vocabulary has reached New Zealand through a series of voyages of exploration and discovery commenced four or five thousand years ago, when the "Austronesians" began migrating from southern China, re-establishing themselves in Taiwan and the Philippines, and spreading out from there to Indonesia, Malaysia and Madagascar in West, and moving East along the northern coast of New Guinea into Eastern Oceania, reaching Hawaii in the North, Aotearoa in the South, and Easter Island, and quite possibly also Peru, in the East.
The journey to Aotearoa was accomplished in a dozen major steps (undoubtedly with many smaller ones in between). At each of these steps, a new language came into being, keeping many of the words (and probably even more of the fundamental ideas) of the previous stage, but its speakers also created new words and changed some of the older ones, along with the ways of saying them and putting them together, partly in response to changing circumstances, and partly because languages reflect the way that the people who speak them grow and change from one generation to the next. Each of these stages of development and change has left an inheritance for succeeding generations.
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| Step 1: "Proto-Austronesian" |
The ancestral language of the Austronesians was spoken about five thousand years ago, probably in the area along the southern Chinese coastline from which the invasion of the Pacific seems to have commenced, splitting first into the Malayo-Polynesian language (from which Maori descends) and the ancestor of the languages spoken by the aboriginal peoples of Taiwan and Vietnam. We can reconstruct many of its words by carefully examining the vocabularies of the languages now spoken which show signs of having an Austronesian past. Through systematic detective work, which includes studying patterns of sound and meaning, we can be fairly sure which words have been inherited from that original language, and which have arisen in later stages as the inheritors of this language lost touch with each other as they ventured further afield [see Note 1]. Sometimes we have archeological evidence that can help us date the probable arrival of speakers of an Austronesian language in a new country. However, we can’t be sure exactly what language the the people who used Austronesian, or, later, Polynesian-style adzes and building-styles long ago actually spoke, so this evidence is purely circumstantial until we can compare it with local tradition or the testimony, written or oral, of outside observers.
The words reconstructed for these "Proto-languages", like the languages themselves, are thus virtual realities – built up from the educated guesses of scholars trying to make sense of the data at their disposal. It is a convention in historical linguistics to place an asterisk before these reconstructed words (as against those for which there is written or oral evidence of their actual form and meaning). The terms included in this brief account are drawn from the lists of words selected for inclusion in Te Mätäpunenga, a compendium of Maori legal concepts that is being worked on by Te Matahauariki Institute at the University of Waikato – the James Henare Maori Research Centre has an important role in this because its Director is Associate Director of the Institute. These words will also be included in Te Papakupu o te Tai Tokerau. There are literally thousands of other words which Mäori shares in common with at least its closest Austronesian relatives, the languages of Eastern Polynesia. [See Note 2]
The word histories which follow are brief, but they do show that there is a history of ideas hidden within these shells of sound. More information about some of them will find its way into Te Papakupu o Te Tai Tokerau, and the people working on the Mätäpunenga project will be exploring in greater detail, using comparative material from other contemporary Austronesian societies, how some fundamental Austronesian, Oceanic and Polynesian legal ideas have persisted, changed, disappeared or been revived as a new society and culture has evolved in Aotearoa.
Mäori words that have come down to us from the "original Austronesian" language of 5,000 or so years ago include:
Hara - Violate tapu, intentionally or otherwise; sin, offence, from *salaq, "wrong"
Mauri - Life principle, thymos of man; metaphysical source of the emotions; a material symbol of the hidden principle protecting vitality, mana, fruitfulness, etc., of people, lands, forests, etc., from ma- (prefix denoting state) and *’undip "life", through Proto-Oceanic *maqudi, Proto-Polynesian *maquri, "alive, life". (The connotation of "life principle" seems also to have originated at least by the Proto-Polynesian stage)
Patu - Strike, beat, thrash, subdue; ill treat in any way; kill; weapon. From *patuk, "strike together", through Proto-Polynesian *patu, "Strike with a blow", whence Proto-Tahitic *patu, "mallet or club".
Tangi - Weep, utter a plaintive cry, sing a dirge, weep over; mourn; lamentation, mourning, dirge, from *tangis, "weep"
Whenua - Land, country; ground; pacenta, afterbirth from *banua, "settlement" through Proto-Polynesian *fanua, "land; placenta".
Step 2: Proto Malayo-Polynesian
The next major stage was the split between what were to become the Formosan languages (the languages of the indigenous people of Taiwan, not the Chinese immigrants of the last few hundred years) and the rest of the Austronesian family, probably by this stage firmly established in the Philippines, and spreading south and west towards what is now Indonesia. This is probably at least 4,500 years ago. Words from this stage inherited by Mäori include:
Aroha - Love, yearning for an absent relative or friend; pity, compassion; affectionate regard; feel love or pity, from *herap, "to like", through Proto-Polynesian *‘alo-‘ofa, "love, pity, compassion".
Atua - Deity, supernatural being, from *‘atuan, "deity".
Tangata - Man, human being; serf, slave, from *[t]avu/mata, "living person" through Proto-Polynesian *tangata, "man, humanity".
Step 3. Proto-Oceanic
A further critical point in the dispersal of Austronesian languages took place as Austronesian speakers began to spread out along the Northeast New Guinea towards the western Pacific, about 4,000 years ago. Mäori words traceable to this period include:
Mana - Authority, control; influence, prestige, power; psychic force; vested with effective authority, from *mana, "Power, effectiveness, prestige".
Tapu - Religio-social restriction; quality or condition of being subject to such restriction, from *tampu, "sacred, forbidden", through Proto-Polynesian *tapu, "prohibited, under ritual restriction, taboo".
Tuakana - Elder sibling (or other person of the same generation) of the same sex; senior line of descent, from * ngkangka, "older sibling", combined with Proto-Eastern-Oceanic *tuRa, "same-sex sibling", through Proto-Polynesian *tua-kana, "elder sibling of same sex". (The capital "R" in the middle of the reconstructed word *tuRa is not a spelling mistake; it stands for what is thought to have been a throaty "r"-like sound.)
Wahine (plural wähine) - .Female; wife; woman, from *fafine (plural *fäfine) "woman, female" (probably ultimately derived from Proto-Austronesian *bahi "woman").
Whakamä - Shame, abasement; shy, ashamed, from *maRa "ashamed" (whaka- is a prefix denoting causation)
Step 4. Proto Eastern Oceanic
In the next stage, the original Oceanic language split into two major divisions, the emerging languages closer to the New Guinea homeland diverging from the dialects spoken by the people moving further eastward into the Pacific. Words derived from this period include:
Marae - Enclosed space in front of a house, courtyard, village common, from * mala‘e "village, village green" through Proto-Polynesian *mala‘e "Open, cleared space used as meeting-place or ceremonial place".
Noa - Free from tapu or any other restriction; of no moment, ordinary, from *noa "be common, worthless". (The specific connotation "free from tapu" seems to have been present by the time Proto-Central Eastern Polynesian, the mother-language of Hawaiian, Tahitian and Mäori, developed - see Step 10, below).
Step 5. Proto Central Pacific
Further change took place as the Austronesian peoples moved further south towards Fiji and northeast into Micronesia. Words from this period, around 3,500 years ago, include:
Whakahë - Cause to go astray, mislead; find fault with, condemn, from *fakasesë "lead astray".
Mätau Know, understand, from* mätau "clever, expert".
Step 6. Proto Fijiic
The last step before the development of the distinctively Polynesian family of languages familiar to most New Zealanders took place after Austronesian-speaking people started to settle the islands in the Fiji group, 3,000 or more years ago, developing their own distinctive idiom which later evolved into the Fijian, Rotuman and Polynesian languages respectively. Words from this stage include:
Mahara - Thought, memory; think about, bear in mind, from *masala "be clever, know", via Tahitic *mahara "think, thought; remember"
Wehi - Be afraid; terrible, from *fesi "hate, dislike"
Step 7 Proto Polynesian
The immediate ancestor of all modern Polynesian languages probably developed during a relatively lengthy sojourn in one of the islands of the Fiji group, remembered as Pülotu in Western Polynesian tradition, and carried from there to Tonga before the scattering of the Polynesian peoples throughout the eastern Pacific. This seems to have been well under way 2,500 years ago. A large number of contemporary Mäori words can be traced to this period. Among these are:
Ariki - First-born male or female in a family of note hence, chief, priest; leader, from *‘ariki "chief"
Hë - Wrong; erring, mistaken, perplexed, at a loss; error, mistake, fault. from *së "err" (probably in turn derived from the same root word as whakahë – see under Proto-Central Pacific, above).
Kupu - Anything said: word, phrase, saying from *kupu "that which is said; word".
Mäori - Normal, usual, ordinary; hence (after the arrival of non-Polynesian people) native, or belonging to New Zealand, Mäori, from *ma‘oli "true, real, genuine".
Täne . Male human being; showing manly qualities; husband, from *ta‘ane "male" (Note –the specifically human connotations in this word seem to have developed in Proto Central Eastern Polynesian – see Step 10, below).
Taonga – Property, anything highly prized (including technical or theoretical knowledge), from *ta(a)‘onga. "treasured possession, especially a garment".
Take - Root, stump; base; cause, reason, origin; subject of an argument, etc. from *take, "Base, origin, source".
Tohunga - Skilled person; expert; priest, from *tufunga "expert, priest".
Tupuna - Ancestor, grandparent, from *tupuna "grandparent" (probably ultimately derived from Proto-Oceanic *timpu / *tumpu "kin two generations removed [grandparent, grandchild]" + -na "his/hers").
Utu.- This word in Mäori has meanings derived from several stages in its history. One set, Return for anything; satisfaction, ransom, reward, price, reply, is derived from the Proto-Polynesian stage: *utu "compensation, payment, return". A second set of meanings, Make response, whether by way of payment, blow, or answer, etc., and including the dimension of revenge, echoed also in Hawaiian, Tuamotuan, Rarotongan and Tahitian, derives from the Proto-Nuclear Polynesian additions to the scope of *utu to include also the notions of "revenge, vengeance".
Whänau - Be born; be giving birth; offspring, family group a merger of two Proto-Polynesian words, *fänau "children, offspring", and *fanau "have child, give birth, bear", both ultimately derived from a Proto-Malayo-Polynesian word *panyaRu "give birth".
Whanaunga - Relative, blood relation, and its derivative Whanaungatanga - Kin-group solidarity; feeling of relationship, from *fanaunga "a consanguineous kin group". (See.also the notes on whänau, above.)
Step 8 Proto Nuclear Polynesian
The next stage in the development of Mäori probably took place on the island of Savai’i, in Samoa, during another lengthy period of stability following the initial settlement of a new land. It is at this stage (1,800-2,000 years ago) that Tongan and Niuean diverge from what were to become Samoan and the Eastern Polynesian languages. Words from this time are:
Hoko - Exchange, barter, buy, sell; merchandise, from *soko, "exchange, buy, sell".
Kaumätua - Adult, elder (man or woman); grow up, become adult from *kauma(a)tu(‘)a. "elderly man" (cf. also Proto-Nuclear Polynesian *kolomatu(‘)a "elderly or wise person", from which is derived Mäori koromatua, Chief).
Manaaki - Show respect or kindness to, entertain, from *mana-‘aki "bestow mana on".
Whängai - Feed; nourish, bring up (so, matua whängai, foster-parent; tamaiti whängai, foster-child), from *fängai "To feed, provide food for" (probably derived in part from Proto-Polynesian *fa‘a. "to feed" )
Rähui . n. A mark to warn people against trespassing; used in the case of tapu, or for temporary protection of fruit, birds, or fish, etc.; the imposition of such a restriction; top protect by a rähui, from *lafu "prohibit", through Proto-Eastern Polynesian *räfui (the Samoan and Tokelauan uses of lafu express similar conservation-related concepts to the Marquesan [‘ahui], Rarotongan [rä‘ui] and Maori words derived from the Proto-Nuclear Polynesian term).
Thus we have an enduring philosophy of law and society carried from one island group to another, changing and developing, but, through the stories that shaped the people, persisting in large part through many changes of sea and sky.
Step 9. Proto Eastern Polynesian
After probably several hundred years of relative quiet in Samoa, voyages of exploration and settlement began into the further reaches of what is now regarded as Polynesia. At this stage, the Samoan group of Polynesian languages begin developing in their own way, while those of the explorers, based probably in the Society Islands to start with, follow a separate path. Words from this period include:
Pure - A ceremony for removing tapu, and for other purificatory purposes. This word is derived from Proto-Polynesian *pule. "have or exert authority", but takes on ceremonial and prayer-related connotations in Eastern Polynesia.
Tika - Straight, direct, keeping a direct course; just, fair, right, correct, and the nominalized form tikanga - Rule, plan, method; custom; meaning, purport; authority, control, are ultimately derived from the Proto-Oceanix / Proro-Polynesian *tika "dart; throw a dart", but tika takes on the meaning "straight, correct, right" in Eastern Polynesia
Tüpäpaku - corpse from *tüpäpaku "corpse, cadaver".
Wairua - Spirit; unsubstantial image, shadow, from *wai-rua "spirit".
Step 10. Proto Central-Eastern Polynesian
At some point, probably not very long after the settlement of Eastern Polynesia started in earnest, a group of Polynesians colonized Easter Island; those that remained in closer contact with each other after this event started to develop new words and features distinguishing their language from that developing in the furthest east. Mäori words dating from this period include:
Kanga - Curse, abuse, execrate; a curse, from *kanga "to place a curse on someone".
Körero - Tell, say, speak, talk; conversation; story, narrative, discussion, from *kö-lelo "talk" (probably derived in part from Proto-Polynesian *‘alelo "tongue").
Matakite - Second sight; seer, one who foresees an event; practise divination, from *matakite "see into the future". In Central Eastern Polynesian languages this meaning was added to what seems to have been the primary meaning of Proto-Polynesian *matakite "see clearly", replacing the older Proto-Polynesian word *kikite "see into the future, second-sight". In Mäori, only the newer meaning of matakite has been retained.
Tauira - Teacher, skilled person; pupil, particularly one under instruction by a tohunga, from *tauira "student priest".
Punarua - Having two wives; second wife, from *puna-rua "having two spouses; polygamy".
Rangatira - Chief (male or female); wellborn, noble, from *langatila "chief of secondary status".
Teina - Younger sibling of the same sex; cousin of the same sex in a younger branch of the family, from *teina, "younger sibling or cousin of the same sex. Note that the alternative form of this word, taina, from which teina itself is undoubtedly derived, has a much longer history; it is derived from Proto-Polynesian *tahina (with the same meaning), which in turn derives from Proto-Central Pacific *taji-na. This way of classifying kinship is echoed (with varying terminology) in many Austronesian languages, going back at least to the Proto Malayo-Polynesian stage.
Whakapapa, Genealogy, line of descent, from *fakapapa, "genealogy, family tree". Ultimately this word derives from Proto-Austronesian *papan "plank, board", the meaning of which is also retained in Mäori papa, and is reflected in the other meanings of whakapapa, such as To lie flat; place in layers; recite in order (which in turn can be seen to be reflected metaphorically in the idea of genealogy).
Step 11 Proto Tahitic
The last stage in the development of Mäori outside Aotearoa occurred after contact with speakers of what became Hawaiian and Marquesan weakened, and their language began to develop separately from that spoken in Tahiti and the Tuamotus. This is the period up to about a millennium ago, before "Tahitic" split up into Tahitian, Tuamotuan, Rarotongan and Mäori. (It is quite likely that some speakers of the Proto-Marquisic language also reached Aotearoa and contributed to the development of Mäori, but the major influence at this point seems to have been from Proto-Tahitic speakers.) These words, the last to reach Aotearoa from outside for some centuries, include:
Hui - . Congregate, come together, meet; assembly, group, from *hui, "assemble, congregate". Note that the other (and older) meaning of hui - Put or add together - comes directly from Proto-Polynesian *fuhi "bunch or cluster; tie in a bunch".
Kotahi - The numeral one (used as an adjective or to indicate a quantity, but not in counting), from *kotasi "one". (The "tahi" element in this word is derived from Proto Nuclear Polynesian *tasi "one", which may in turn reflect Proto Eastern Oceanic *tasa "one".)
Waka - Crew of a canoe, tribe.from *waka "a social grouping - clan, confederation". This is a specialized meaning of a much older word, Proto-Austronesian *wangka, "boat", which is also reflected in the other meanings of waka in Mäori (Canoe, vehicle, etc.). It is also worth noting that extending the idea of a ship’s company to a larger political grouping is often found elsewhere in Austronesia; for example the primary administrative subdivision in the Philippines is called a baranggay, which literally means "the crew of a boat".
Step 12 A – Te Reo Mäori o Aotearoa: Old Words / New Meanings
As settlement of Aotearoa proceeded, new ideas came to be expressed through existing words by adding new connotations, and sometimes radically altering their inherited meanings. A few such changes are:
Ahi kä/ahikäroa (literally "a [long]-burning fire"), Title to land by occupation.
Aituä - Misfortune (especially a death); bad omen, probably from Proto-Central Pacific *‘anitu, "spirit", through Proto-Polynesian, *aitu "ghost, spirit of dead person".
Hapü - in the sense of Section of a large tribe, clan, secondary tribe, from Proto Nuclear Polynesian PNP *sapü "pregnant" (with the inherited meaning also retained)
Hau - in the sense of Vitality of man, vital essence of land and resources (cf. hau Wind, from Proto-Polynesan *sau "wind, breeze").
Kaupapa - in the sense of Plan, strategy (an older meaning, Level surface, comes from Proto Nuclear-Polynesian -- Step 8, derived in turn partly from Proto-Malayo-Polynesan *papan "plank", which is still present in modern Maori, as papa, with the same meaning).
Kawa - this word is derived from Proto-Oceanic *kawa, which refers to the tree Piper methysticum and the drink (kava) made from it. In Proto-Nuclear Polynesian the connotation "sour tasting, bitter" (replacing an earlier word, *kona) had already been added. In Aotearoa the name was given to another member of the same plant family, Macropiper excelsum, and the ceremonial associations of the original "kawa" are reflected in the new meanings, A class of karakia, or ceremonies in connection with a new house or canoe, the birth of a child, a battle, etc (& perform, effect through these ceremonies etc.).
Köhuru - Murder, kill treacherously. This term is thought to be related to a Hawaiian word ‘öhulu "to spear seals", also derived ultimately from Proto-Polynesian *sulu "insert (as in weaving, thatching), pierce".
Mäkutu - this is derived from a Proto-Fijiic word *makutu, which in most parts of Polynesia retains the original meanings of "diligent, industrious, conscientious". It has its (usually malign) magical connotations only in Aotearoa.
Muru - the use of this word to denote a process of restorative justice appears to be unique to Mäori; the connotations of the Proto-Polynesian form, *mulu, "wipe, rub, shed layers", are also retained in Mäori.
Ohäkï - Dying speech. This term is unique to Mäori, but incorporates the Proto-Polynesian *‘ofa "greeting".
Taiao - derived from Proto Nuclear Polynesian *tai‘ao "early morning, dawn", but in Maori this became extended and changed to indicate "the world", and is now used also as the term for "environment".
Step 12 B – Te Reo Mäori o Aotearoa: New words for a New World
New conditions also encourage people to be creative and create completely new words. Among the Mäori words which appear to have developed in the Post-Polynesian, Pre-European contact period are:
Ihi - Power, authority, rank, essential force
Koha - Respect, regard; present, gift
Küpapa - Go stealthily; be neutral in a quarrel;(and later, in the Nineteenth Century) traitor to the Maori cause
Pakanga (from paka - quarrel) - Strife, dissension, hostility, war.
Päkehä - [Mäori term of doubtful origin!]
Püremu - Adultery
Rohe - Boundary; enclose
Rünanga - Assembly, council
Tähae - in the sense of thief, but in the sense of "evil omen", cf. Rarotongan tä‘ae. "savage beast, horrible monster, dragon"
Tatau Pounamu (lit. Greenstone Door), A peace pact. both the words and the metaphor are locally generated
Tumu / Tümü - tumu (as origin, base, trunk) is Proto-Eastern Polynesian, but tümü as headland is encountered only in Mäori. Note the idiom tümü whakarae - chief.
Whakawä - Accuse, bring a formal charge against; condemn; investigate, adjudicate on
Wana - Bud, shoot; ray of the sun; well grown, fine, conspicuous.
Step 12 C – Te Reo Mäori o Aotearoa: New words from beyond Austronesia
After a period of isolation from the outside world, Mäori came into regular contact with visitors from overseas in the late 18th Century. Many hundreds of words from a variety of languages were incorporated into the Mäori vocabulary. Early examples with legal ramifications included:
Kawanatanga - Governance, a nominalized form of kawana, from English governor, ultimately derived from Latin gubernator.
Marenatanga - Marriage This expression was adopted from English, to signify a new concept of this institution.
Ture - Law - From Hebrew torah
Step 12D – Te Reo Mäori o Aotearoa: Global transmutations
Since the 1980s coining new Mäori terminology has again become something of a growth industry, although, in contrast to the nineteenth century, when words from English and other languages were freely adopted and adapted to Mäori needs, the Mäori Language Commission prefers words generated from the language’s Austronesian and autochthonous resources (that is, from words or parts of words which can be traced back to some point within Steps 1 to 12B, inclusive, in the scheme outlined above). One such example is the word for our dictionary, approved by the Maori Language Commission after its establishment in 1987, but probably already in use before then:
Papakupu [noun] Dictionary. Derived from papa "Box, recepticle" – a "Step 8" meaning of a Proto-Malayo-Polynesian word *papan "plank", which is also a component of other words, for example kaupapa (see Step 12A) – and kupu "Anything said" (from Proto-Polynesian – see Step 7).
Another recent invention is:
Mätäpunenga [noun] Encyclopedia. Coined by the Maori Language Commission from two "Step 12B" words:
Mätä "Receptacle packed with preserved fish or birds, or fern root", and
Punenga "clever, intelligent, always seeking and acquiring useful knowledge’
The Matahauariki people think that Mätäpunenga is an appropriate term for their compendium, which is intended to provide useful knowledge, both elaborated (as with the birds and fish, food from times of plenty), and basic (as with the fern root, emergency food for survival under adverse conditions). It would be equally appropriate for Te Papakupu o te Taitokerau, which is also a mätäpunenga.
NOTE 1. For a succinct recent discussion of how the relationships of Austronesian languages have been determined, and different approaches to reconstructing the vocabulary of a previous stage of a language, see the introductory chapter to The Lexicon of Proto Oceanic 1. Material Culture, ed. Malcolm Ross, Andrew Pawley and Meredith Osmond (Canberra: Research School of Pacific Studies, The Australian National University, 1998). There is more information about the history of the Maori language in "The History and Development of the Mäori Language", by Richard Benton, in Graham McGregor & Mark Williams (eds), Dirty Silence (Auckland: Oxford University Press, 1991), and in articles by Bruce Biggs, Ray Harlow and Ross Clark in The Origins of the First New Zealanders, ed. Douglas G. Sutton (Auckland: Auckland University Press, 1994). There are also very interesting maps (one of which is used in this article) in a World Wide Web article on "Polynesian Prehistoric Migrations: The Construction of Spatial Models Based on Archaeological and Linguistic Data" by Taylor Houston. This can be found at http://www.utexas.edu/ftp/depts/grg/ustudent/gcraft/fall96/houston/polynesia/gopoly.htm.
NOTE 2. Most of the reconstructed forms in these lists are based on those suggested in the Pollex database maintained by the late Professor Bruce Biggs. Sometimes there is disagreement among scholars as to the most likely form of a word, especially in the early -stages of the development of Austronesian languages, and in these cases I have generally chosen the form that looks closest to its Mäori counterpart. The English definitions of Mäori words are mostly drawn from Williams’ Dictionary of the Mäori Language.
This article has been adapted from: "The Importance Of Words -- Introduction to the Symposium on Te Mätäpunenga – Compiling A Compendium Of Mäori Customary Law", by Richard A. Benton, presented at "Prospects and Retrospects" – the Australasian Society for Law and History Conference,University of Waikato, Hamilton July 6-8, 2001. We are grateful to Taylor Houston of the University of Texas for permission to reproduce his map of Oceania.
This document was originally prepared for the on-line version of the draft dictionary, launched on the James Henare Māori Research Centre web site in November 2001. It may be quoted or reproduced provided that acknowledgement is made to the author/s and source.